THD204 - TMA02 - Part 3 Can Human Skill Survive Microelectronics?
What I intend to examine in this essay is the effect of microelectronics on the skills and management decisions which effect those who produce these items whether they be positive or negative. Microelectronics and technologies developed using it are going be a significant factor in the skill required for future employment for the foreseeable future. "At present the most important cluster of technologies in terms of their implications for the future of work are microelectronics and information technologies: these are likely to remain important for several decades"[Senker CDROM].
Taylorism
This system developed by Fredrick Taylor, in the early part of the last century, forms the basis by which management controls and deskills their workforces, this system when used it probably one of the worst for deskilling. Its basis is a time and motion study of how to separate planning and decisions from the workforce. It is believed by fragmenting the work of production into small repetitive tasks that this would produce maximum efficiency from machinery and workers. Now using this technique the tasks are so small that the workforce assigned to complete it requires minimal training and because of this they can be trained far more quickly. Management now have control of the manufacturing process and by virtue of the cheap training costs workers are easily replaceable. An example of this is the amount of temporary or part-time jobs within the manufacturing sector today. Another downside of this is that as technology advances machine design, as more machines become available which are able to perform the fragmented tasks, so numbers of workers can be reduced accordingly.
Braverman
Braverman argues that, in Capitalist Society, management is compelled by economic forces to accumulate capital. He regards the fragmentation and deskilling of jobs under Taylorism as a tool ideally suited to the advancement of management goals. The best way of achieving this goal was to take full control over the workforce in order to get maximum value for money. The downside to this action is that the workforce becomes more and more deskilled. From a management prospective there is less reliance on the workforce. He believes that this need for control is what drives the implementation and effect of technology on the workforce. " Automated technologies were introduced by management with the intention of deskilling jobs in order to increase management control over the labour process" [McLoughlin and Clark - CDROM]. Of course there are many more factors influencing the introduction of new technology and the skills required by the workforce, some of those being market share, quality, competitiveness to name but a few.
Rosenbrock
With his views he could almost be a disciple of Taylor, believing that new technology is developed with sole intention of replacing human labour. "New Technology offers continual opportunities for eliminating human skill and for subordinating people to machines" Rosenbrock (1984)-CDROM]. He suggests that the designers of systems are deskilling workers with their designs by habitually de-humanising processes due to the influence of Taylorism. Rosenbrock also seems to have the idea that it is only Social Scientist who has any interest in the preservation of human skills. "What is remarkable is that engineers and technologists have not produced any methodology for using to the full the abilities and skills of human beings" [Rosenbrock (1981)-CDROM]. What I believe he is saying here is that because of the almost rigid adherence to Taylorism there is a very real danger that human skill could be made extinct.
McLoughlin and Clarke
McLoughlin and Clarke cite Buchanan in their paper "Analysing Technological Change at Work" when they suggest that the need for the introduction of new technology is governed by other factors falling into three broad categories for the introduction of new technologies.
- 1) Strategic -set by senior management relating to external factors such as customer requirements, product quality etc.
- 2) Operational - production techniques, level of quality, labour costs, financial constraints, etc., these being set by middle management.
- 3) Control - set by junior management relating to introduction of automation, working practises, skill levels etc.
They seem to be suggesting that deskilling is not the only option but upskilling is viable alternative with the introduction of new technology.
Buchanan
David Buchanan argues the management choices over how to deploy when to deploy and what to deploy with regard to new technologies has most impact. Buchanan challenges Braverman's views as being lacking in substance. "There is a research tradition which has constantly indicated that hierarchical control and deskilling of labour are not the inevitable consequences of technical advances"[Buchanan - CDROM]. He believes that these decisions are not made solely on the grounds of control but a wide range other factors influence the decision. He believes there are five main factors:
- 1) Technology has no impact on an organisation other than the objectives behind its use.
- 2) Management decisions regarding the introduction and reorganisation to accommodate the technology can lead to the creation of highly skilled jobs.
- 3) Upskilling jobs can have a significant cost benefit as lower skills can sometimes lead to expensive mistakes.
- 4) Managers introducing new technologies may have greatly differing objectives and decisions may be dependent on their own personal agenda.
- 5) Management decisions are often influenced by personal aspirations and these will have some effect when re-organising the workforce when introducing new technology.
Lane
In her paper 'The Pursuit of Flexible Specialisation in Britain and West Germany' she explores the differences between the two countries working cultures with regard to control and skilling/deskilling. Her views are in direct contrast to the removal of control and deskilling of the workers advocated by Braverman and Taylor. She puts forward her theory of 'Flexible Specialisation', whereby new technologies in conjunction with a flexible, skilled workforce enable an organisation to keep pace with changes in world market conditions and demand for diverse and high quality products. She believes that the implementation of "flexible specialisation" in West Germany has allowed greater success there than in Britain. She concludes that there are several pre-conditions that account for this:
- 1) Requirement for a multi-skilled workforce, workers must be skilled in two or more areas. Thus allowing the flexibility to respond to changing conditions.
- 2) Good industrial relations and mutual trust between employee and employer are essential if all are to work together for the good of the company.
- 3) Competent management is also a requirement.
The West German management has taken a more enlightened approach to control and skilling issues in introducing flexible specialisation, but the bottom line is still the motive for profit. "Upskilling is practised because it is believed that the new technology can only be fully exploited with a skilled, autonomous workforce" [Lane (1988) - CDROM]. Flexible specialisation is dependent on maintaining or increasing the skills of the workforce whereas Braverman and Taylor are more concerned with removing control and deskilling the workforce. This is further reinforced by Hartmann "There is a striking kinship between the increasing use of CNC and the renewed interest by companies in training and employing skilled workers" [Hartmann et al. (1983) - CDROM]
Conclusion
It is inevitable that new technical advances will change the way in which people work and the skills they will require for the world of tomorrow. "Technological change may provide the catalyst for the development of new approaches to the conditions under which people are employed, the work that they do, and the manner in which they participate in the overall running of the organisation". All the authors have their own theories about what will cause changes and the factors that will influence the eventual outcomes. It's not that microelectronics will influence anything on its own, but when the other factors as discussed in this essay are taken into account with microelectronics then there are going to be repercussions for human skills. "In other words, the changes which result from the introduction of new technology are profoundly affected by the decisions made by managers and the way these are contested by unions and workforce within individual organisations". Managerial decisions will play a key role in the introduction of technology and the skill levels required to work with that technology. "The impact of technical change on the labour process is influenced by prevailing patterns of management objectives. These objectives are shaped by the wider social and organisational structures within which managers function" [Buchanan-CDROM].
Whether human skills are lost or gained would seem to be entirely at the mercy of the way in which the technology is implemented. "The impact of new information technology on organisation and manpower depends on where and how it is used" [Hartmann et al. (1983) - CDROM]. What ever happens skills will not disappear completely, there will always be niches where skill is preserved i.e. there are still companies making bricks by hand, Ok it's a niche market but the skills have been preserved. There is also considerable optimism about the future of human skill particularly in West Germany. "Companies, particularly in Germany, are increasingly seeing the merits of stressing craft skills, as a viable option, when implementing the new technology". [Hartmann et al. (1983) - CDROM]. As for the future skills of British workers it rather depends on whether or not management wish to follow the doctrines of Taylorism.
Bibliography
Buchanan - Management Objectives in Technical Change
Hartmann et al - Computerised Machine Tools (1983) -CDROM
Lane - The Pursuit of Flexible Specialisation (1988) - CDROM
McLoughlin and Clark - Analysing Technical Change at Work (1998b) -CDROM
Rosenbrock - Will Human Skill Survive Microelectronics (1984)
Rosenbrock - Engineers and the Work People Do (1981)
Senker - Technological Change and the Future of Work